The Non-Cooperation Movement – Civil disobedience to end British rule

The Non-Cooperation Movement started by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920. It was a major step in India’s fight for freedom from British rule. It brought together people from all parts of society to demand self-rule using peaceful methods. We will explore the history, important events, leaders, strategies and big changes caused by this movement, including the problems it faced and the lasting effects that shaped future struggles for India’s independence.

1. Historical Context

Colonial Rule

The British East India Company started as traders and eventually controlled much of India. After the Revolt of 1857 the British Crown took direct charge, starting the British Raj.

• Economic Exploitation: British policies harmed Indian artisans and farmers promoting British industries instead. This led to poverty and famines.
• Political Control: A centralized administration was established which limited Indian political activities. The Indian Civil Service was mainly British reducing Indian representation.
• Social and Cultural Impact: Efforts to ‘civilize’ India often undermined traditional Indian culture and education leading to a cultural disconnect despite the rise of a Western-educated class.

World War I

• Economic Hardships: India supported the war with men and materials which caused increased taxes, inflation and shortages.
• Political Changes: The British promised reforms for Indian support during the war. However the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms post-war disappointed many fueling disillusionment.

2. Causes

Rowlatt Act (1919):

• Details of the Act: Officially the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919 it allowed imprisonment without trial for up to two years and restricted press and assembly freedoms.
• Implications: The act was seen as a betrayal, leading to anger and protests. It was viewed as stifling the growing demand for self-rule.

Also Check – The Rowlatt Satyagraha and its role in India’s Freedom Movement

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919):

• Events Leading to the Massacre: On April 131919 people gathered at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, to protest the Rowlatt Act and celebrate Baisakhi. The crowd including women and children was peaceful.
• The Massacre: General Dyer ordered troops to fire on the crowd without warning resulting in hundreds killed and more injured.
• Aftermath: This brutal act shifted Indian public opinion against British rule significantly and spurred the independence movement.

Khilafat Movement:

• Reasons for Inception: It began to protest the breakup of the Ottoman Empire post-World War I and defend the Caliph’s role as a religious leader.
• Connection with the Non-Cooperation Movement: Gandhi linked the Khilafat cause with the Non-Cooperation Movement to unite Hindus and Muslims against British rule broadening the base and strength of the nationalist movement.

3. Objectives

Swaraj (Self-Government): 

• The main goal was to achieve Swaraj or self-rule where Indians could govern themselves without British control.

Economic Independence:

• Promotion of Indian Goods: Encouraged the use of Indian-made products especially Khadi (hand-spun cloth) to revive local industries and reduce dependency on British goods.
• Rejection of British Products: Urged Indians to boycott British goods, schools, courts and legislative bodies to weaken British economic interests in India.

Social Reforms:

• Addressing Untouchability: Gandhi pushed for the elimination of untouchability to promote social equality.
• Promoting Hindu-Muslim Unity: Aimed to bridge the gap between Hindus and Muslims, strengthened by Gandhi’s support for the Khilafat Movement.

Also Check – The Khilafat Movement- Agitation for Ottoman Caliphate’s preservation

4. Leadership

Mahatma Gandhi:

• Philosophy: Embraced non-violence (Ahimsa) and civil disobedience (Satyagraha), advocating for peaceful resistance and the power of truth.
• Strategies: Included boycotting British goods, using Khadi, staging peaceful protests and encouraging non-cooperation with British authorities.
• Leadership Style: Known for mobilizing large groups, maintaining moral integrity and his staunch commitment to non-violence.

Other Key Leaders:

• Motilal Nehru: A prominent lawyer who abandoned his practice to join the movement, demonstrating his dedication through active protest participation.
• Chitta Ranjan Das: Played a pivotal role in Bengal, mobilizing support and leading local efforts.
• Subhas Chandra Bose: Initially aligned with the movement’s objectives, contributing to its activities before choosing a different path later.
• Rajendra Prasad: Actively involved in organizing protests and promoting the movement’s goals in Bihar.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel: Leveraged his organizational skills to garner support in Gujarat.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad: A key Muslim figure who sought to foster Hindu-Muslim unity alongside supporting the movement.
• Jawaharlal Nehru: Deeply engaged in the movement, later emerging as a central figure in India’s independence struggle.
• Maulana Mohammed Ali and Shaukat Ali: Leaders of the Khilafat Movement who collaborated with Gandhi to unite Muslims and Hindus.
• C. Rajagopalachari: A staunch Gandhi supporter instrumental in the movement in South India.
• Gopabandhu Das: From Odisha he participated actively and advocated for the movement’s objectives.

5. Strategies and Methods

Non-Violent Resistance (Satyagraha):

Principles:

• Ahimsa (Non-Violence): Focuses on not harming any living being either physically or mentally.
• Truth (Satya): Maintaining honesty in thoughts, words and actions.
• Self-Suffering: Accepting personal suffering to change the oppressor’s heart without retaliating.

Practices:

• Civil Disobedience: Publicly refusing to obey unjust laws.
• Peaceful Protests: Organizing marches, sit-ins and demonstrations peacefully.
• Fasting: Used both as a protest and a moral persuasion tool.

Boycotts:

Boycotting British Goods:

• Swadeshi Movement: Promoted the use of local goods over British imports to support Indian industries.
• Economic Impact: Reduced British economic influence by cutting down their market share in India.

Boycotting Institutions:

• Educational Institutions: Urged students and teachers to leave British schools and colleges.
• Government Services: Encouraged Indians to resign from British government jobs and other roles.

Boycotting Honors:

• Titles and Awards: Asked Indians to reject British honors and titles as a protest.

Promotion of Khadi:

• Encouraging Hand-Spun Cloth: Promoted Khadi to foster self-reliance and reduce dependence on British textiles.
• Economic Independence: Helped revive the local textile industry boosting employment for rural folks.
• Symbol of Resistance: Khadi became a powerful symbol of the independence struggle and self-sufficiency.

Non-Cooperation:

Refusal to Attend Government Functions:

• Boycotting Ceremonies: Indians were encouraged to stay away from official functions held by the British.

Refusal to Attend Schools and Courts:

• Educational Boycott: Promoted leaving British institutions for Indian-run schools.
• Judicial Boycott: Urged lawyers and citizens to avoid British courts and use Indian arbitration methods.

6. Major Events

Launch of the Movement (1920):

Key Decisions:

• Indian National Congress (INC) Session: In September 1920 at the Calcutta session led by Mahatma Gandhi, the INC decided to start the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• Resolution: Called for giving up British titles boycotting British schools, courts and products and promoting Khadi.

Initial Activities:

• Boycotts: Indians began to refuse British goods, educational institutions and legal systems. Many students shifted from British schools to Indian institutions.
• Resignations: Prominent lawyers like Motilal Nehru and Chitta Ranjan Das left their practices to join the movement.
• Khadi Promotion: Gandhi pushed for the use of hand-spun cloth, making spinning wheels a common item in Indian homes.
• Peaceful Protests: Organized mass demonstrations across the country, focusing on non-violence and civil disobedience.

Chauri Chaura Incident (1922):

Event:

• Violent Clash: On February 4, 1922, protesters clashing with police in Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, set a police station on fire, resulting in the deaths of 22 policemen.

Impact on the Movement:

• Gandhi’s Reaction: Disturbed by the violence, Gandhi halted the Non-Cooperation Movement on February 12, 1922, insisting on sticking to non-violence.
• Criticism: Gandhi faced internal criticism for stopping the movement, but he stood firm on the necessity of non-violence.

Arrests and Repression:

Government Response:

• Arrests: The British responded with numerous arrests, including detaining Gandhi and other key leaders.
• Repressive Measures: Enforced strict controls including press censorship, bans on public gatherings and forceful dispersion of protests.

Effects on the Movement:

• Demoralization: The heavy-handed government response temporarily demoralized the movement’s supporters.
• Continued Struggle: Despite setbacks, the movement set the stage for future national efforts, highlighting the effectiveness of mass mobilization and non-violent resistance.

7. Impact and Outcomes

Mass Mobilization:

Engagement of Various Sections of Society:

• Urban and Rural Participation: Both city dwellers and villagers, including professionals, students, merchants, peasants and laborers actively joined the movement.
• Women’s Involvement: Women significantly contributed by joining protests, boycotting British goods and promoting Khadi. Leaders like Sarojini Naidu became prominent.
• Youth and Students: Many students left British schools for Indian institutions and youth groups formed to back the movement.
• Workers and Peasants: The working class and farmers, affected by British policies, were integral to the movement’s strength.

Economic Impact:

Effects on British Economic Interests:

• Boycott of British Goods: Boycotting British textiles and other products drastically cut down their sales in India.
• Promotion of Swadeshi: Focusing on Indian-made goods boosted local industries and lessened dependence on British imports.
• Financial Strain: The boycotts strained the British financially, as reduced consumption of their goods and services decreased their revenue in India.

Political Impact:

Changes in Indian Political Landscape:

• Strengthening of INC: The Indian National Congress grew into a major political force, representing diverse Indian demographics.
• Rise of New Leaders: Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Subhas Chandra Bose came to prominence, influencing future independence efforts.
• Shift in Strategies: The effective use of non-violent resistance shaped strategies for subsequent movements like the Civil Disobedience and Quit India Movements.
• Negotiations with British: The movement’s impact made the British consider Indian demands more seriously, leading to talks and reforms like the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms.

Social Impact:

Influence on Social Reforms and Communal Harmony:

• Untouchability and Caste System: Efforts were made to address issues like untouchability, with Gandhi promoting equality for the Dalits (Harijans).
• Hindu-Muslim Unity: The movement worked to improve relations between Hindus and Muslims, with leaders from both communities cooperating.
• Empowerment of Women: Women’s active participation in the movement raised awareness of their rights and societal roles.
• Educational Reforms: The establishment of national schools and colleges offered an alternative to British educational institutions, nurturing Indian culture and values.

8. Challenges and Criticisms

Internal Conflicts:

• The Indian National Congress (INC) included various groups with different ideas and methods. Conflicts arose between:
  • Moderates vs. Extremists: Moderates, like Gopal Krishna Gokhale, wanted gradual reforms, while Extremists, like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, pushed for immediate self-rule.
  • Leadership Disputes: Leaders differed in their approaches. For example, Gandhi focused on non-violence and mass mobilization, whereas Subhas Chandra Bose favored more aggressive actions.
  • Strategic Differences: Some leaders doubted the effectiveness of non-cooperation and argued for more radical methods.

Violence:

• Despite Gandhi’s focus on non-violence (Ahimsa), there were several instances of violence:
  • Chauri Chaura Incident (1922): A violent clash where protesters burned a police station, killing 22 policemen, led Gandhi to halt the movement, as it strayed from its non-violent principles.
  • Localized Violence: In some areas, protests turned violent, resulting in loss of life and property, which undermined the movement’s ethical stance and gave the British reasons to enforce strict measures.

British Repression:

• The British used many strategies to suppress the movement:
  • Arrests and Imprisonment: Important leaders, including Gandhi, were arrested to weaken the movement.
  • Censorship and Propaganda: Strict control over the press and misinformation campaigns were used to discredit the movement and its leaders.
  • Police Brutality: Police and military forces often violently broke up protests, with incidents like the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre highlighting the severity of British actions.
  • Legislative Measures: Laws like the Rowlatt Act allowed detention without trial, curbing dissent further.

9. Legacy

Long-Term Effects:

Influence on Subsequent Movements:

• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934): Continued the use of non-violent resistance and mass mobilization started during the Non-Cooperation Movement. Gandhi’s Salt March in 1930 used similar strategies of non-cooperation and civil disobedience.
• Quit India Movement (1942): This movement’s “Do or Die” call echoed the spirit of non-cooperation, driven by lessons from earlier successes and aiming for complete independence.

Development of Political Consciousness:

• The movement awakened political awareness among all levels of Indian society, making the independence struggle truly national and inclusive.
• It helped build a strong sense of national unity, bridging regional, religious and social divides.

Strengthening of the Indian National Congress:

• Solidified the Congress as the main force in the independence struggle and brought forth new leaders pivotal in future movements.

Historical Significance:

Shift in Strategy:

• Marked a strategic turn from petitions to direct action and mass involvement, showing the power of collective non-violent resistance.
• Showcased economic boycotts and self-reliance (Swadeshi) as effective methods against colonial rule.

Empowerment of the Masses:

• By engaging ordinary people, the movement gave them a stake in the independence fight, maintaining the momentum of the movement.
• Brought forward issues like social reforms and communal harmony, making the struggle more comprehensive and inclusive.

International Attention:

• Drew global focus to India’s independence efforts, gaining international sympathy and support.

Legacy of Non-Violence:

• Established non-violence (Ahimsa) as a core principle, influencing not just future Indian movements but also global movements like the Civil Rights Movement in the United States led by Martin Luther King Jr.