Chapter 6 of “Our Pasts – II” titled “Towns, Traders, and Craftspersons” offers a glimpse into mediaeval towns and their varied roles and characteristics.
Table of Contents
Types of Medieval Towns
- Variety of Towns- Mediaeval towns could be temple towns, administrative centres, commercial hubs, or port towns. Often, they combined several of these functions.
- Example – Thanjavur- Thanjavur, under the Cholas, serves as an example. It was an administrative centre, a temple town, and a hub for commerce and crafts.
Features of Thanjavur
- Geographical Setting- Located near the river Kaveri, Thanjavur was known for its beautiful surroundings and the Rajarajeshvara temple.
Architecture and Administration-
- Temple- The Rajarajeshvara temple, renowned for its architecture, was a significant feature.
- Palaces and Courts- Kings held court in mandapas (pavilions) and managed administrative affairs.
- Army Barracks- Accommodation for the army was also a part of the town’s layout.
Economic Activities-
- Markets- The town had vibrant markets trading in grain, spices, cloth, and jewellery.
- Water Sources- Wells and tanks provided water.
- Crafts and Weaving- The town was famous for its weavers and sculptors, producing textiles and bronze idols.
Temple Towns and Pilgrimage Centres
Role of Temples- Temples played a pivotal role in urbanisation. Rulers often built temples as a sign of devotion and provided them with resources for various activities.
Economy and Society Around Temples-
- Endowments- Temples received land and money for rituals, feeding pilgrims, and festivals.
- Donations- Pilgrims visiting the temples also contributed donations.
- Banking and Trade- Temples often engaged in banking and trade using their wealth.
- Settlements- Many workers, artisans, traders, and others settled near temples, giving rise to temple towns.
Examples of Temple Towns-
- Bhillasvamin (Madhya Pradesh), Somnath (Gujarat)
- Kanchipuram, Madurai (Tamil Nadu), Tirupati (Andhra Pradesh)
- Pilgrimage Towns- Places like Vrindavan (Uttar Pradesh) and Tiruvannamalai (Tamil Nadu) evolved from pilgrimage centres into towns.
Religious Coexistence and Example of Ajmer-
- Ajmer- Initially the capital of the Chauhan kings and later a Mughal suba headquarters.
- Religious Harmony- It was known for its religious coexistence, with the Sufi saint Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti attracting devotees of all faiths.
- Pushkar Lake- Nearby Pushkar is a significant pilgrimage site.
Bronze, Bell Metal, and the “Lost Wax” Technique
Bronze and Bell Metal-
- Bronze- An alloy made of copper and tin.
- Bell Metal- A type of bronze with a higher proportion of tin, producing a bell-like sound when struck.
The ‘Lost Wax’ Technique-
- Step 1- Wax Model Creation- An image or statue is first sculpted in wax.
- Step 2- Clay Covering- This wax model is then covered with clay, forming a mould around it. The clay is allowed to dry.
- Step 3- Removing Wax- The clay-covered wax model is heated. A small hole is made in the clay cover, and the molten wax is drained out through this hole, leaving an empty clay mold.
- Step 4- Pouring Metal- Molten metal (bronze or bell metal) is poured into the hollow clay mold through the hole.
- Step 5- Breaking the Mold- After the metal cools and solidifies, the clay cover is carefully broken and removed, revealing the metal statue.
- Step 6- Finishing Touches- The statue is then cleaned and polished.
Advantages of the ‘Lost Wax’ Technique-
- Precision and Detail- Allows for intricate details and complex designs that are difficult to achieve with other techniques.
- Unique Pieces- Each wax model is destroyed in the process, so every metal statue is unique.
- Versatility in Size and Shape- Can be used to create statues of varying sizes and shapes.
Development of Small Towns
Emergence from Villages- Starting around the 8th century, many small towns began to appear, evolving from larger villages.
- Key Features-
- Mandapika (or Mandi)- A marketplace where villagers sold their produce.
- Market Streets (Hatta or Haat)- Streets lined with shops, each specialising in different goods.
- Artisan Streets- Specific areas for artisans like potters, oil pressers, sugar makers, etc.
Traders and Economic Activities
- Local and Travelling Traders– Some traders lived in these towns, while others travelled between towns.
- Diverse Goods- They traded in a variety of items including horses, salt, spices, and betel nut.
- Samantas and Zamindars- Local rulers or landlords often built fortified palaces nearby and taxed traders and goods.
Trade and Taxation
- Taxation Rights- These rulers sometimes granted the right to collect taxes to local temples, which were often constructed by them or wealthy merchants.
- Record Keeping- These tax rights and other details were recorded in inscriptions, many of which survive today.
Taxes on Markets in 10th-Century Rajasthan
- Source- The information comes from a 10th-century inscription in Rajasthan.
- Collected by- Temple authorities were responsible for collecting these taxes.
- Types of Taxes-
- Taxes in Kind- Some taxes were paid not with money but with goods. This means people gave a portion of what they produced or dealt in, instead of cash.
- Goods Taxed-
- Food items like sugar, jaggery (a type of unrefined sugar), salt, butter, sesame oil.
- Agricultural products like coconuts and areca nuts.
- Textiles like cloth, dyes, thread, and cotton.
- Other items like metal goods and cattle fodder.
- Taxes on Specific Trades-
- Various Professions Taxed- Traders in general, those selling metal goods, distillers (people who make alcohol), and oil sellers were taxed.
- Grain and Transportation- Taxes were also levied on loads of grain, likely indicating a tax on transportation or trade of grain.
- Mode of Collection-
- In Kind and Cash- While some taxes were collected in the form of goods (in kind), others were collected in cash.
- Present-Day Context-
- Comparison with Modern Taxes- Students are encouraged to explore how modern-day market taxes work – who collects them, how they are collected, and what they are used for.
In the 10th century in Rajasthan, a variety of goods and trades were subject to taxation, with the temple authorities responsible for collecting these taxes. This system included both taxes in kind (goods) and in cash, reflecting a diverse economic structure. This historical taxation system can provide insights into the economic and social organisation of the time and offers an interesting comparison with contemporary tax systems.
Also Check – Towns Traders and Craftspersons Class 7 Extra Questions and Answers
Types of Traders
Diverse Trader Groups-
- Banjaras- A notable group of traders.
- Horse Traders- Formed associations for better negotiation in trade.
- Guilds for Protection- Traders often formed guilds, especially when travelling through different kingdoms or forests.
Trading Guilds
- South Indian Guilds- From the 8th century onwards, there were prominent guilds like Manigramam and Nanadesi, engaging in extensive trade within the subcontinent and with Southeast Asia and China.
Prominent Trading Communities
- Chettiars and Marwari Oswal- Became leading trading groups in India.
- Gujarati Traders- Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras, traded internationally, exchanging textiles and spices for gold, ivory, and other goods.
International Trade
- West Coast Towns- Were hubs for international traders including Arabs, Persians, Chinese, Jews, and Syrian Christians.
- European Market Impact- Indian spices and cloth reached European markets through Italian traders, fetching high profits. This demand for spices and cotton cloth eventually attracted European traders to India.
Kabul- A Key Commercial Hub in the 16th and 17th Centuries
Geographical Landscape-
- Location- Kabul, located in present-day Afghanistan, is known for its rugged, mountainous terrain.
Political and Commercial Importance-
- Rise in Importance- From the 16th century onwards, Kabul became significant both politically and commercially.
Connection to the Silk Route-
- Link to Silk Route- Kabul, along with Qandahar, was connected to the famous Silk Route, a network of trade routes connecting the East and West.
- Horse Trade- One of the key trades in Kabul was in horses. This route was crucial for horse trading.
Economic Estimates-
- Jean Baptiste Tavernier’s Observation- In the 17th century, Tavernier, a renowned diamond merchant, noted that the annual horse trade in Kabul amounted to Rs 30,000, a substantial amount for that time.
Trade Goods-
- Variety of Goods- Camels transported various items from Kabul to other parts of the subcontinent and beyond. These included dried fruits, dates, carpets, silks, and even fresh fruits.
- Slave Trade- Slaves were also brought to Kabul for sale.
Kabul’s strategic location and connection to the Silk Route made it an important commercial centre, especially known for its horse trade. The variety of goods traded through Kabul, as noted by historical figures like Tavernier, highlights its role as a vibrant trading hub in the 16th and 17th centuries. The trade in Kabul not only included luxury items like silks and carpets but also had a darker aspect with the sale of slaves. Kabul’s historical trade significance helps in appreciating its role in the broader economic and cultural exchanges along the Silk Route.
Crafts in Towns
Bidar Craftspersons-
- Specialisation- Craftspersons in Bidar were renowned for their unique inlay work, using copper and silver.
- Bidri Craft- This craft became so famous that it was named after the place, Bidar.
Panchalas or Vishwakarma Community-
- Composition- This community included goldsmiths, bronze smiths, blacksmiths, masons, and carpenters.
- Contributions-
- Temple Building- They were crucial in constructing temples, showcasing their skill in metalwork and stone.
- Palaces and Large Structures- Their expertise extended to building palaces, large buildings, tanks, and reservoirs.
Weaver Communities (Saliyar or Kaikkolars)-
- Prosperity- These weavers emerged as wealthy communities due to their craft.
- Contributions to Temples- Their prosperity enabled them to make donations to temples.
- Specialisation in Cloth Making-
- Independent Crafts- Processes like cotton cleaning, spinning, and dyeing evolved into specialised and independent crafts.
The Changing Fortunes of Towns
Ahmedabad (Gujarat)-
- Growth- Ahmedabad grew to become a major commercial city. Over the years, it prospered and expanded in terms of trade and economic significance.
Thanjavur-
- Decline- Once a significant city, Thanjavur decreased in size and importance. This decline could be due to various factors like political changes, economic shifts, or reduced trade activities.
Murshidabad (West Bengal)-
- Rise to Prominence- Initially, Murshidabad gained prominence as a centre for silk production. It became the capital of Bengal in 1704, marking its importance in the region.
- Decline- However, in the 18th century, Murshidabad faced a decline. This was largely due to competition from cheap mill-made cloth imported from England. The local weavers couldn’t compete with the low prices of the imported cloth, leading to a downturn in the local silk industry.
Hampi- The Architectural Splendor
Location and Foundation-
- Situated in- Krishna-Tungabhadra basin.
- Vijayanagara Empire- Hampi was the heart of the Vijayanagara Empire, established in 1336.
Construction and Architecture-
- Magnificent Ruins– The ruins showcase a well-fortified city.
- Unique Building Technique- The walls were constructed without mortar, using interlocking techniques.
- Distinctive Features- The architecture featured splendid arches, domes, and pillared halls, often adorned with sculptures.
- Gardens and Motifs- There were well-planned orchards and pleasure gardens, decorated with motifs like the lotus.
Cultural and Commercial Hub-
- Diverse Traders- The markets of Hampi attracted Muslim merchants, Chettis (a trading community), and agents of European traders like the Portuguese.
- Cultural Activities in Temples- Temples served as centres for cultural activities, where devadasis (temple dancers) performed.
- Virupaksha Temple- This temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, was a significant cultural site.
- Mahanavami Festival- An important festival, now known as Navaratri in the south, was grandly celebrated in Hampi.
Mahanavami Platform-
- Archaeological Findings- Archaeologists discovered the Mahanavami platform where the king received guests and watched performances and wrestling bouts.
Decline-
- Defeat and Ruin- Hampi fell into ruin after the defeat of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 by the Deccani Sultans from Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar, and Bidar.
Hampi, during its prime in the 15th and 16th centuries, was not just a marvel of architectural ingenuity but also a bustling hub of commercial and cultural activities. Its distinctive construction techniques, royal complexes, and vibrant cultural life, especially centred around the temples, made it a significant historical site. The decline of Hampi after the defeat of Vijayanagara marks an important chapter in the region’s history.
Water Management by Vijayanagara Rulers
Interest in Water Projects-
- Vijayanagara Rulers’ Focus- The rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire were deeply invested in constructing water management systems, such as tanks and canals.
Anantraj Sagar Tank-
- Construction- This tank was created by building a long earthen dam, about 1.37 kilometres in length, across the Maldevi river.
- Purpose- Such tanks were essential for storing water, especially in regions with seasonal rainfall.
Krishnadeva Raya’s Contribution-
- Massive Lake Creation- Krishnadeva Raya, one of the most prominent Vijayanagara rulers, built a huge stone embankment between two hills. This effort resulted in the formation of a large lake near Vijayanagar.
- Irrigation System- Water from this lake was then distributed through a network of aqueducts and channels.
- Impact– This infrastructure was crucial for irrigating fields and watering gardens, thereby supporting agriculture and the overall beautification of the area.
Surat- A Gateway to the West
Importance in Trade-
- Emporium of Western Trade- During the Mughal period, Surat in Gujarat was a major centre for western trade, alongside Cambay (now Khambhat) and Ahmedabad.
- Trade Route- It was a key gateway for trade with West Asia, particularly through the Gulf of Ormuz.
- Pilgrimage Route- Surat was also known as the ‘gate to Mecca,’ as many pilgrim ships began their journey from this port.
Cosmopolitan City-
- Diverse Population- People of various castes and religions lived in Surat.
- European Influence- In the 17th century, the Portuguese, Dutch, and English had their trading posts (factories) and warehouses in Surat.
Vibrant Port and Trade-
- Busy Port- According to chronicler Ovington in 1689, about a hundred ships from different countries could be seen anchored at Surat’s port at any time.
- Cotton Textile Market- Surat was known for its cotton textiles, especially those with gold lace borders (zari). These goods were in demand in West Asia, Africa, and Europe.
Infrastructure and Banking-
- Facilities for Travelers- The state built rest-houses for the diverse people visiting the city.
- Architectural Beauty- The city boasted magnificent buildings and numerous pleasure parks.
- Banking Sector- The Kathiawad seths or mahajans (moneychangers) operated large banking houses. Surat’s financial instruments, called hundis, were respected even in distant markets like Cairo, Basra, and Antwerp.
Decline of Surat-
Factors Leading to Decline-
- Decline of the Mughal Empire impacted its market and productivity.
- Control of sea routes by the Portuguese.
- Competition from Bombay (now Mumbai), where the English East India Company moved its headquarters in 1668.
Contemporary Surat-
- Today, Surat remains a bustling commercial centre.
Surat during the Mughal era was a bustling, cosmopolitan port city that played a vital role in international trade. It was renowned for its diverse population, active participation of European traders, and its famous cotton textile industry. The city’s infrastructure supported its global connections. However, political and economic shifts in the late 17th century led to its decline, though it remains an important commercial centre in modern times.
Masulipatnam- A Key Port in the 17th Century
Location and Significance-
- Situated on- Delta of the Krishna River.
- Significance- It was an important fish port town and a centre of intense trading activity in the 17th century.
European Influence-
- Interest of European Companies- Both the Dutch and English East India Companies aimed to control Masulipatnam due to its strategic importance.
- Dutch Fort- The Dutch built a fort in Masulipatnam.
Local Control and Competition-
- Qutb Shahi Monopolies- The rulers of Golconda (Qutb Shahi dynasty) imposed monopolies on the sale of textiles, spices, etc., to limit the control of European companies.
- Diverse Traders- The competition among Golconda nobles, Persian merchants, Telugu Komati Chettis, and European traders made the city prosperous and populous.
Political Manoeuvring-
- Mughal Expansion– As the Mughals expanded their influence to Golconda, their representative, Mir Jumla, played the Dutch and English against each other.
- Annexation by Mughals- In 1686-1687, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb annexed Golconda.
Shift in European Strategies-
- Looking for Alternatives- European companies began to seek other options as Mughal power extended.
- New Policy of English East India Company- The Company decided that a port must have political, administrative, and commercial roles, not just trade connections.
Decline of Masulipatnam-
- Shift to Other Cities- As English traders moved to Bombay (Mumbai), Calcutta (Kolkata), and Madras (Chennai), Masulipatnam lost its merchants and prosperity.
- Modern Status- Today, it is a small, somewhat forgotten town, having lost its former glory.
Masulipatnam in the 17th century was a bustling port town, significant for its strategic location and the competition among various trading powers, including European companies and local rulers. The town’s decline began with the Mughal annexation of Golconda and the strategic shift of European trading companies, leading to its present status as a less prominent location.
New Towns and Traders in the 16th and 17th Centuries
European Quest for Eastern Goods-
- Motivation- European countries sought spices and textiles from the East, which had become highly popular in Europe and West Asia.
- Establishment of East India Companies- The English, Dutch, and French formed their respective East India Companies to expand their trade in the East.
Competition with Indian Traders-
- Prominent Indian Traders- Indian traders like Mulla Abdul Ghafur and Virji Vora, who owned many ships, initially competed with the European companies.
- European Dominance- However, European companies used naval power to dominate sea trade and eventually coerced Indian traders to become their agents.
Rise of the English Power-
- Commercial and Political Dominance- The English eventually emerged as the dominant commercial and political power in the Indian subcontinent.
Expansion of Crafts-
- Increased Demand- The demand for goods, particularly textiles, led to the expansion of spinning, weaving, bleaching, and dyeing crafts.
- Refinement in Textile Designs- Indian textile designs became increasingly sophisticated.
Decline in Craftsperson Independence-
- System of Advances- Craftspersons started working under a system where they received advances and had to produce textiles as per European agents’ orders.
- Loss of Liberty- Weavers lost the freedom to sell their cloth independently or create their own designs.
Rise of New Cities-
- Emergence of Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras- These cities became major centres of commerce and crafts.
- Movement of Merchants and Artisans- Merchants and artisans, including weavers, were relocated to “Black Towns” established by European companies in these cities.
- Segregation- “Blacks” or native traders and craftspersons lived in these towns, while “whites” or European rulers occupied areas like Fort St. George in Madras or Fort St. William in Calcutta.
This period saw a significant shift in the dynamics of trade and craftsmanship in India, driven by European intervention. The establishment of East India Companies and the subsequent dominance of European powers, particularly the English, led to the decline of independent Indian traders and craftspersons. The emergence of new cities and the segregation of living spaces marked a significant change in the urban landscape and commercial practices.
Vasco da Gama’s Voyage to India
Background-
- European Motivation- European sailors in the 15th century were eager to discover sea routes to the Indian subcontinent to obtain spices, which were highly valued in Europe.
Vasco da Gama’s Journey-
- Route- He sailed down the African coast, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and then crossed the Indian Ocean.
- Arrival in India- His journey took over a year, and he reached Calicut (now Kozhikode, India) in 1498.
- Return to Portugal- He returned to Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, in 1499.
- Challenges- The voyage was perilous; out of his four ships and 170 crew members, only two ships and 54 men survived.
- Profitable Routes- Despite the dangers, the new sea route was extremely profitable, prompting other European sailors from England, the Netherlands, and France to follow.
Christopher Columbus’s Voyage
His Assumption-
- Earth’s Shape- Believing the earth was round, Columbus, an Italian explorer, decided to reach India by sailing westward across the Atlantic Ocean.
Landing in the West Indies-
- Accidental Discovery- In 1492, Columbus landed in the West Indies, mistaking them for the Indian subcontinent.
- Name Origin- The West Indies were named due to this confusion.
Aftermath-
- European Expansion- Following Columbus, Spanish and Portuguese sailors and conquerors occupied large parts of Central and South America.
- Impact on Local Populations- This often led to the destruction of earlier settlements in these regions.
