Chapter 5 – When People Rebel, 1857 and After – Events and Key incidents – Class 8 History

Introduction of the Doctrine of Lapse (1848)

The Doctrine of Lapse was a policy introduced by Governor-General Lord Dalhousie in 1848. This policy allowed the British East India Company to annex any Indian princely state if the ruler died without a biological male heir or was deemed incompetent.

Purpose of the Doctrine:

• Control Over Territories: The main aim was to expand British territories in India without military confrontation by taking over states that lacked a direct heir.
• British Expansion: It was a strategic move to assert British dominance and integrate more regions into their controlled territories systematically.

How It Worked:

• Annexation: If a ruler died without a natural heir or the heir was deemed unsuitable, the state would automatically be annexed by the British. This meant that the state would come under British rule, and the royal family would lose all powers and privileges.
• Examples of Annexation: Using this doctrine, several states were annexed including Satara (1848), Jhansi (1853), and Nagpur (1854).

Impact on Indian States:

• Loss of Sovereignty: Many Indian princely states lost their sovereignty and independence. This led to discontent and unrest among the royals and their subjects.
• Resistance and Resentment: The policy was highly unpopular and was one of the factors that fueled the widespread discontent that eventually led to the uprising of 1857.

Criticism and Legacy:

• Unfair and Opportunistic: The doctrine was criticized for being unethical and a clear demonstration of British imperial ambition. It was seen as a direct assault on the traditional rights and hereditary privileges of Indian princes.
• Role in 1857 Revolt: The resentment it created among the princes and their subjects contributed to the conditions leading up to the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

Also Check – Chapter 5 -When People Rebel : 1857 and After- Class 8- History- Questions and Answers

Widespread Discontent Among Sepoys

By the mid-19th century, Indian soldiers (sepoys) in the British East India Company’s army were becoming increasingly unhappy due to several changes in their terms and conditions of service.

Changes Affecting Religious Beliefs:

• New Enlistment Rules: One major issue was the introduction of new rules that potentially compromised their religious practices. For instance, the sepoys were concerned about crossing the sea for overseas deployment, which many believed would lead to the loss of their caste and religion.
• Greased Cartridge Incident (1857): The introduction of new rifle cartridges greased with animal fat (suspected to be cow and pig fat, which are sacred and taboo in Hinduism and Islam respectively) triggered a severe backlash. The sepoys were required to bite the cartridges to load them, which they saw as a direct violation of their religious purity.

Overseas Deployment:

• Mandatory Service Abroad: Another rule change made it mandatory for sepoys to serve overseas if required. This was a significant shift from earlier practices where such service was voluntary and often came with extra pay.
• Resentment Towards Overseas Service: This change not only threatened their religious identity but also removed the choice and financial incentive previously associated with overseas duties.

Impact of Discontent:

• Low Morale: These changes led to low morale and widespread dissatisfaction among the sepoys.
• Fear of Forced Conversion: Many sepoys and their families believed that these changes were part of a broader plan by the British to convert them to Christianity.
• Connection to 1857 Revolt: This growing discontent among the sepoys was one of the critical factors that fueled the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, a major uprising against British rule.

Conclusion:

• Catalyst for Rebellion: The combination of religious interference and the fear of overseas deployment acted as a catalyst, turning the sepoy discontent into a full-blown rebellion against the British East India Company.

Also Check – Chapter 5 -When People Rebel : 1857 and After- Class 8 – History Notes

Enlistment of Large Numbers of Indian Soldiers (Sepoys)

During the 18th and 19th centuries, the British East India Company significantly increased the number of Indian soldiers, known as sepoys, in its army. This strategy was part of their broader military expansion across India.

Reasons for Increasing Sepoy Numbers:

• Cost-Effectiveness: Sepoys were less expensive to recruit and maintain compared to British soldiers, making it economically viable for the Company to expand its forces.
• Local Knowledge: Indian soldiers were familiar with the local geography, climate, and languages, which proved advantageous in various military campaigns across the diverse regions of India.

Role in Military Operations:

• Frontline Deployment: Sepoys were often placed on the front lines in many key battles throughout the British conquest of India, playing crucial roles in the expansion and consolidation of British territories.
• Support for British Troops: They provided essential support to the smaller contingents of British troops, helping to maintain order and enforce British policies.

Impact Leading to the Uprising:

• Increasing Dependence: As their numbers grew, the British increasingly depended on sepoy troops to uphold their authority in India.
• Discontent and Disillusionment: Despite their crucial role, sepoys often faced discrimination, poor working conditions, and were paid less than their British counterparts. These factors contributed to growing discontent among the ranks.
• Crucial Role in the Uprising: The large number of trained and armed Indian soldiers eventually played a pivotal role in the uprising of 1857, using their training and weapons against the British East India Company as grievances reached a boiling point.

Conclusion:

• Catalyst for Change: The enlistment and treatment of sepoys were instrumental in shaping the dynamics of British colonial rule in India and were directly linked to the outbreak of the 1857 revolt, which significantly altered the course of Indian history.

Discontent Among the Ruling Classes

• Overview: During the 18th and 19th centuries, as the British East India Company expanded its control in India, many local kings, nawabs, and their followers saw their power and authority gradually diminish. This led to widespread discontent among these ruling elites.

Loss of Authority:

• Reduced Power: Many nawabs and rajas experienced a significant reduction in their powers. The British imposed restrictions on their authority, reducing them often to figureheads.
• Annexation of Territories: Through policies like the Doctrine of Lapse or outright military conquest, the British annexed numerous princely states. This meant that if a ruler died without a direct heir or was deemed incompetent, their territory could be taken over by the British.

Impact on Rulers and Their Courts:

• Stationing of British Residents: In many royal courts, the British stationed Residents, officials who oversaw the administration and ensured the ruler adhered to British interests. This greatly curtailed the freedom and traditional governance of the rulers.
• Disbandment of Armed Forces: The rulers’ personal armed forces were often disbanded, further diminishing their traditional power and ability to assert any independence.

Economic Impact:

• Seizure of Revenues: The British took control of significant revenue streams from these states, further weakening the rulers’ financial independence and ability to govern effectively.

Resistance and Negotiations:

• Attempts to Negotiate: Some rulers tried to negotiate with the British to protect their interests. For example, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi sought to have her adopted son recognized as the heir to her kingdom, and Nana Sahib pleaded for his father’s pension. However, these pleas were often ignored or rejected outright by the British.

Contributions to Uprising:

• Role in 1857 Revolt: The accumulated discontent and desperation led many of these disempowered rulers to support or actively participate in the Revolt of 1857, hoping to restore their positions and autonomy.

Conclusion:

• Long-term Discontent: The diminishing authority and the systematic annexation of their territories created long-term resentment against British rule, contributing to the larger context of rebellion and resistance against colonial rule in India.

Economic Distress Among Peasants and Artisans

During the British rule in India, both peasants and artisans faced significant economic challenges due to high taxation and disruptive economic policies imposed by the British. This led to widespread economic distress among these groups.

High Taxation:

• Increased Taxes: The British levied high taxes on land and other agricultural products, which many peasants struggled to pay.
• Rigid Collection Methods: The methods of tax collection were strict and inflexible. Failure to pay taxes on time often resulted in harsh penalties, including the seizure of land and property.

Impact on Peasants:

• Loss of Land: Many peasants were unable to pay the high taxes and were forced to take loans from moneylenders. Over time, failing to repay these loans led to the loss of their lands, pushing them into further poverty.
• Decreased Agricultural Production: High taxes also meant that peasants could not invest in better agricultural practices or tools, leading to lower agricultural productivity and further economic hardship.

Disruption of Artisan Trades:

• Competition from British Goods: Indian artisans faced severe competition from cheaply manufactured British goods that flooded Indian markets. Local handicrafts could not compete on price and many artisans lost their traditional livelihoods.
• Decline of Traditional Crafts: The introduction of industrial manufacturing processes in Britain and the importation of British goods disrupted the traditional crafts and industries in India, leading to a decline in employment for artisans.

Widespread Economic Distress:

• Unemployment and Poverty: The combined effects of high taxation, competition from British goods, and loss of land led to widespread unemployment and poverty among peasants and artisans.
• Social Unrest: This economic distress was one of the underlying causes of social unrest and dissatisfaction with British rule, contributing to various uprisings and rebellions, including the Revolt of 1857.

Conclusion:

• Catalyst for Rebellion: The economic hardships faced by peasants and artisans not only eroded their traditional ways of life but also fueled resentment against British policies, making them key players in the resistance against colonial rule.

The Spark of the Revolt: The Greased Cartridges Incident (1857)

In 1857, a significant event that contributed to the ignition of the Indian Rebellion was the introduction of new rifle cartridges by the British East India Company. These cartridges were rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat.

Significance of Greased Cartridges:

• Religious Sensitivities: The use of cow and pig fat was deeply offensive to Hindu and Muslim soldiers (sepoys). Hindus consider cows sacred, while pigs are considered unclean by Muslims.
• Rumors and Distrust: The rumor that the cartridges were greased with these fats caused a massive distrust among the sepoys towards their British commanders, as they felt their religious beliefs were being directly violated.

Breaking Point:

• Required to Bite the Cartridge: To load the rifles, sepoys had to bite the cartridges to open them. The possibility of ingesting fat from cows or pigs was unacceptable to many sepoys and seen as a plot to defile their religion.
• Widespread Anger: This issue became a focal point for widespread anger and resentment against the British, who were seen as insensitive and disrespectful towards Indian religious practices.

Incident at Meerut:

• Refusal to Use Cartridges: The immediate spark occurred when several sepoys at Meerut refused to use the greased cartridges. This act of defiance led to severe punishments, which further inflamed sentiments.
• Mutiny and Rebellion: The punishment of these sepoys led to a mutiny on May 10, 1857, where the enraged sepoys rebelled, killed their British officers, and proclaimed a return to Mughal rule under Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar.

Spread of the Rebellion:

• Catalyst for Wider Revolt: The incident acted as a catalyst for wider rebellion, with the revolt spreading rapidly across various parts of North India. The discontent with the cartridges merged with broader grievances against British policies.

Conclusion:

• Historical Impact: The greased cartridges incident is often seen as the immediate cause of the 1857 Indian Rebellion. It highlighted the broader issues of cultural insensitivity and political oppression under British rule, leading to one of the most significant uprisings in Indian history.

Outbreak of the Revolt at Meerut (10 May 1857)

The revolt at Meerut on 10 May 1857 marked the beginning of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which is considered the first major uprising against British rule in India.

Immediate Cause:

• Refusal to Use Greased Cartridges: The revolt was sparked by the sepoys’ refusal to use the newly introduced rifle cartridges, which were rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat. This was offensive to both Hindu and Muslim soldiers.
• Imprisonment of Sepoys: The sepoys who refused to use the cartridges were arrested, court-martialed, and sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. This harsh punishment caused outrage among their fellow soldiers.

Key Events of the Revolt:

• Release of Imprisoned Sepoys: On the evening of 10 May 1857, the comrades of the imprisoned sepoys decided to take matters into their own hands. They broke into the jail, freed the imprisoned soldiers, and began attacking British officers and establishments.
• Violent Rebellion: The situation quickly escalated into a violent rebellion. The sepoys killed several British officers and civilians and set fire to British buildings and properties in Meerut.

Significance of Meerut Revolt:

• Beginning of Widespread Rebellion: The revolt in Meerut was not an isolated incident. It acted as a catalyst, sparking uprisings in various parts of North India. The soldiers in Meerut marched towards Delhi, where they were joined by other rebels.
• Restoration of Mughal Authority: Once the rebels reached Delhi, they declared Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor, as the leader of the uprising, symbolizing a return to Indian rule.

Impact on British Control:

• Challenge to British Authority: The revolt at Meerut and its rapid spread challenged the British authority in India. It took the British several months to suppress the rebellion, which had spread across large parts of the country.
• Change in British Policies: The revolt led to significant changes in British policies towards India, eventually leading to the end of the East India Company’s rule and the direct governance of India by the British Crown.

Conclusion:

• Historical Importance: The outbreak of the revolt at Meerut on 10 May 1857 is remembered as the moment when widespread resistance against British rule in India began. It was the spark that ignited a broader struggle for independence.

Seizure of Delhi and Proclamation of Bahadur Shah Zafar as Emperor

 In May 1857, after the outbreak of the revolt at Meerut, the rebel sepoys marched towards Delhi, one of the most important and symbolic cities in India. Their goal was to take control of the city and restore the Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, to power.

Capture of Delhi:

• Arrival in Delhi: On the morning of 11 May 1857, the sepoys reached Delhi. The news of their arrival quickly spread, causing excitement and unrest among the local population and the soldiers stationed in Delhi.
• Uprising in Delhi: The sepoys stationed in Delhi joined the rebellion. Together, they attacked British officers, seized weapons, and set fire to British buildings. The British forces in Delhi were overwhelmed by the sheer number of rebels and the intensity of the attack.

Proclamation of Bahadur Shah Zafar as Emperor:

• Demand for Leadership: After taking control of Delhi, the rebel sepoys gathered around the Red Fort, where Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor, resided. They demanded that he lead the uprising against the British.
• Reluctant Acceptance: Initially, Bahadur Shah Zafar was hesitant to join the revolt, as he was old and aware of the might of the British forces. However, under pressure from the rebels, he eventually agreed to lead the rebellion. This decision was crucial, as it provided the revolt with a unifying figure and a sense of legitimacy.
• Symbol of Resistance: By proclaiming Bahadur Shah Zafar as their emperor, the rebels hoped to unite all Indians under a single banner against the British. His name and position as a Mughal emperor held significant symbolic power, especially among the Indian ruling classes and common people who still respected the Mughal dynasty.

Impact on the Rebellion:

• Widespread Support: The proclamation of Bahadur Shah Zafar as the leader of the revolt inspired many other Indian rulers, soldiers, and common people to join the rebellion. They believed that the restoration of the Mughal emperor could lead to the end of British rule in India.
• Strategic Importance of Delhi: Controlling Delhi was strategically important for the rebels because it was not only the symbolic seat of Mughal power but also a central location for organizing and directing the rebellion across North India.

Conclusion:

• Turning Point in the Revolt: The capture of Delhi and the proclamation of Bahadur Shah Zafar as emperor marked a significant turning point in the 1857 uprising. It transformed the rebellion from a series of scattered mutinies into a broader movement for the restoration of Indian rule.

Sieges and Counter Offensives – Kanpur, Lucknow, and Jhansi (1857-1858)

During the Indian Rebellion of 1857-1858, three key locations—Kanpur, Lucknow, and Jhansi—became significant battlegrounds where fierce sieges and counter offensives took place between the Indian rebels and British forces. These events involved notable leaders like Nana Sahib, Rani Lakshmibai, and the British military.

Kanpur

• Leadership of Nana Sahib: In Kanpur, Nana Sahib, the adopted son of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, led the rebellion. He was a prominent figure who sought to reclaim power and resist British control.
• Siege of Kanpur: The city of Kanpur witnessed a brutal siege. Nana Sahib’s forces surrounded the British garrison, leading to intense fighting. The British were eventually forced to surrender, but the aftermath saw a tragic massacre of British soldiers, women, and children, which further fueled the British desire for revenge.
• British Recapture: Later, British forces, strengthened by reinforcements, recaptured Kanpur. Nana Sahib’s role in the uprising made him a symbol of resistance, but the British labeled him as a key enemy.

Lucknow

• Siege of the Residency: Lucknow was another critical site of rebellion, where Birjis Qadr, the son of the deposed Nawab of Awadh, was proclaimed the new Nawab. His mother, Begum Hazrat Mahal, played a significant role in organizing the defense against the British.
• Prolonged Siege: The British Residency in Lucknow was besieged by rebel forces for several months. The British residents, including many women and children, were trapped inside, leading to a prolonged and desperate defense.
• British Counteroffensive: British forces eventually broke the siege in November 1857, but the city remained a hotbed of resistance for months. The final recapture of Lucknow by the British occurred in March 1858, after heavy fighting.

Jhansi

• Rani Lakshmibai’s Leadership: In Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai, one of the most iconic figures of the 1857 rebellion, led the defense of her kingdom against the British. After her husband’s death, she became the ruler and fiercely resisted British attempts to annex Jhansi under the Doctrine of Lapse.
• Siege of Jhansi: The British laid siege to Jhansi, but Rani Lakshmibai, with the help of Tantia Tope, another rebel leader, mounted a strong defense. Despite her efforts, Jhansi eventually fell to the British in April 1858.
• Legacy of Rani Lakshmibai: Rani Lakshmibai escaped but continued to fight until she was killed in battle in June 1858. Her bravery and leadership made her a symbol of Indian resistance against British rule.

Conclusion

• Strategic Importance: The sieges and battles in Kanpur, Lucknow, and Jhansi were crucial in the context of the 1857 rebellion. These locations were not only strategically important but also symbolized the fierce resistance of Indian leaders and their followers against British colonial power.
• Impact on the Rebellion: The fall of these strongholds marked significant victories for the British but also demonstrated the determination and resilience of the Indian rebels. The stories of leaders like Nana Sahib, Rani Lakshmibai, and Begum Hazrat Mahal continue to inspire generations as symbols of resistance and patriotism.

Suppression of the Revolt and Capture of Leaders (1858)

By 1858, the British had managed to suppress the widespread Indian Rebellion of 1857-1858. This was achieved through brutal military campaigns, reinforcements from Britain, and strategic measures to weaken the rebels.

Recapture of Key Cities:

• Recapture of Delhi: One of the first major victories for the British was the recapture of Delhi in September 1857. The city was a central hub for the rebels, and its loss was a significant blow to the revolt.
• Fall of Lucknow and Jhansi: The British also recaptured important strongholds like Lucknow in March 1858 and Jhansi in April 1858. Rani Lakshmibai, a key leader of the rebellion, was killed in battle in June 1858.

Capture and Trial of Bahadur Shah Zafar:

• End of the Mughal Dynasty: Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor, was captured by the British after they retook Delhi. He was put on trial for his involvement in the rebellion.
• Exile to Rangoon: After the trial, Bahadur Shah Zafar was sentenced to life imprisonment and exiled to Rangoon (modern-day Yangon, Myanmar) along with his wife, Begum Zinat Mahal. He spent the rest of his life in exile, where he died in 1862.

Suppression of Other Leaders:

• Tantia Tope: Another prominent leader, Tantia Tope, continued to resist British forces by conducting guerrilla warfare in central India. However, he was eventually captured, tried, and executed in April 1859.
• Nana Sahib and Begum Hazrat Mahal: Nana Sahib, who led the rebellion in Kanpur, and Begum Hazrat Mahal, who played a crucial role in Lucknow, both managed to escape British capture but were never able to regain their former positions of power.

Repression and Reprisals:

• Harsh Punishments: The British responded to the rebellion with harsh reprisals. Hundreds of rebels, sepoys, and their leaders were executed or imprisoned. Land and property belonging to suspected rebels were confiscated.
• Change in British Policies: The scale and intensity of the rebellion forced the British to rethink their governance in India. The East India Company was dissolved, and control of India was transferred directly to the British Crown under Queen Victoria.

Conclusion:

• End of the Revolt: By the end of 1859, the British had effectively suppressed the rebellion. However, the revolt had far-reaching consequences, leading to significant changes in how India was governed and laying the groundwork for future resistance movements.

End of the East India Company’s Rule (1858)

The year 1858 marked a significant turning point in Indian history. Following the widespread revolt of 1857, the British Government decided to take direct control of India, ending the rule of the East India Company.

Reasons for the Change:

• Failure of the East India Company: The Indian Rebellion of 1857 exposed the weaknesses and failures of the East India Company in managing its territories and maintaining order. The British Government realized that to secure its interests in India, it needed to directly govern the country.
• Need for Stronger Control: The British Crown believed that by taking direct control, it could implement better policies, ensure stability, and prevent future rebellions.

Transfer of Power:

• Government of India Act 1858: The British Parliament passed the Government of India Act in 1858. This act officially ended the rule of the East India Company and transferred all its powers, assets, and responsibilities to the British Crown.
• Establishment of the British Raj: With the passing of this act, India became a direct colony of the British Crown, marking the beginning of the British Raj. The title of Governor-General was replaced with that of Viceroy, who would act as the personal representative of the British monarch in India.

Key Changes Under the British Raj:

• New Administrative Structure: The British established a new administrative structure in India. A Secretary of State for India was appointed in the British Cabinet to oversee Indian affairs, advised by a council known as the India Council.
• Promises to Indian Princes: To ensure loyalty, the British assured the Indian princes that their territories would not be annexed and that they could continue to rule as long as they accepted the British Queen as their sovereign.

Impact on Indian Society:

• Centralized Control: The end of the East India Company’s rule meant that all decisions related to India were now made directly by the British Government. This led to more centralized and systematic governance.
• Increased Military Presence: To prevent future revolts, the British increased the number of British soldiers in India and reduced the proportion of Indian soldiers in the army.

Conclusion:

• Significance of the Change: The transfer of power from the East India Company to the British Crown marked the end of an era and the beginning of a new phase in Indian history. The British Raj would continue to rule India until its independence in 1947.

Promulgation of New Policies to Prevent Further Rebellions

After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British government introduced several new policies to prevent any future uprisings. These policies were aimed at strengthening their control over India, reducing the likelihood of rebellion, and addressing some of the causes that had led to the revolt.

Administrative Reforms:

• End of East India Company Rule: The British government took direct control of India from the East India Company. A new administrative structure was established, with a Secretary of State for India in London, advised by the India Council. The Governor-General of India was now called the Viceroy, acting as the representative of the British Crown.
• Respect for Local Customs: To avoid further discontent, the British promised to respect the religious and social customs of the Indian people. This was a significant shift from their earlier approach, which had often been seen as disrespectful and intrusive.

Military Reforms:

• Reduction in Indian Soldiers: The proportion of Indian soldiers (sepoys) in the British Indian Army was reduced, while the number of European soldiers was increased. This was done to ensure that the British could maintain better control over the army and prevent large-scale mutinies.
• Recruitment Changes: The British changed their recruitment practices, focusing more on recruiting soldiers from communities like the Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Pathans, who were seen as more loyal to the British. This was a deliberate move to avoid recruiting from regions like Awadh, Bihar, and central India, where the revolt had been most intense.

Social and Religious Policies:

• Protection of Landlords and Zamindars: The British sought to secure the loyalty of the landowning classes by promising them protection and security over their lands. They assured landlords and zamindars that their rights would be respected as long as they remained loyal to the British Crown.
• Suspicion Towards Muslims: The British believed that Muslims had played a significant role in the rebellion, and as a result, they were treated with suspicion and hostility. Many Muslims lost their lands and were subjected to harsher treatment.

Impact of the New Policies:

• Stabilization of British Rule: These reforms helped the British stabilize their rule in India by reducing the likelihood of another large-scale rebellion. By addressing some of the grievances that had led to the revolt, the British were able to maintain their control over the country for the next several decades.
• Strengthening of Colonial Power: The new policies strengthened the British colonial administration, making it more centralized and better equipped to handle any future challenges.

Conclusion:

• Long-term Consequences: While these policies helped prevent immediate rebellions, they also laid the groundwork for future discontent by reinforcing British control and exploitation. The Indian struggle for independence would continue to grow, ultimately leading to the end of British rule in 1947.