Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age – Notes 

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Birsa Munda and His Influence

• In 1895, Birsa, a man with reputed miraculous powers, was seen in the forests and villages of Chotanagpur, Jharkhand.
• He claimed to be appointed by God to rescue his people from the oppression of the ‘dikus‘ (outsiders) and was believed to have the ability to cure diseases and increase grain yield.
• Birsa quickly gained a large following, with thousands believing he was a divine figure sent to alleviate their sufferings.

Background and Followers

• Birsa was born into a Munda family, a tribal group from Chotanagpur.
• His followers were not limited to Mundas but included other tribal communities like Santhals and Oraons.
• These tribes were distressed by the transformations under British rule which threatened their traditional lifestyle, livelihood, and religious practices.

Challenges Faced by Tribals

• The tribal societies were experiencing significant disruptions due to British policies.
• Their customary ways of life were vanishing, economic stability was threatened, and religious practices were at risk.
• These changes prompted the tribals to seek solutions and leadership to counter the challenges posed by both the British and the dikus.

Also Check – Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age – Class 8 – Question Answers

Socio-Economic Background of Tribals

• Tribal societies, unlike caste societies, were relatively egalitarian with customs and rituals distinct from those prescribed by Brahmanical texts.
• Although tribes considered themselves united by kinship ties, there were still noticeable social and economic disparities within each tribe.

Core Issues and Birsa’s Mission

• Birsa aimed to address the cultural erosion and economic exploitation caused by both the British administration and the dikus.
• The term ‘dikus‘ referred to non-tribal outsiders who often exploited tribal lands and resources, further aggravating the tribals’ plight under British rule.

Tribal Livelihoods and Practices

Jhum Cultivation:

• Tribal people in the nineteenth century engaged in various activities, including jhum cultivation or shifting cultivation.
• This method involved clearing forest patches by cutting treetops and burning vegetation to allow sunlight to reach the soil.
• Ash from burnt vegetation, rich in potash, was used to fertilise the soil.
• Tribals used axes for cutting trees and hoes for preparing the soil, scattering seeds without ploughing.
• After harvesting, they moved to a new field, leaving the old one fallow for years to regain fertility.
• This practice was common in the hilly and forested areas of north-east and central India.

Hunting and Gathering:

• Some tribal groups survived by hunting animals and gathering forest products.
• The Khonds in Orissa’s forests are an example; they hunted collectively and shared the meat.
• They consumed forest fruits, roots, and cooked using oil from sal and mahua seeds.
• Forest products like kusum and palash flowers were sold to local weavers and leather workers.
• Medicinal herbs and shrubs from the forest were also utilised and sold in local markets.

Economic Exchanges:

• Tribals obtained rice and grains by bartering forest produce or buying with earnings from odd jobs.
• They engaged in various labour like carrying loads or building roads, especially when forest produce was scarce.
• The Baigas of central India, for instance, viewed labour for others as beneath their dignity, preferring to live off forest resources.

Interaction with Market Forces:

• Tribals often interacted with traders and moneylenders to acquire non-local goods.
• Traders sold goods at high prices, while moneylenders offered loans at steep interest rates, often leading tribals into debt and poverty.
• The tribals viewed these moneylenders and traders as harmful outsiders contributing to their misery.

Changes in Tribal Societies

1. Animal Herding:
   • Many tribal communities like the Van Gujjars of Punjab, Labadis of Andhra Pradesh, Gaddis of Kulu, and Bakarwals of Kashmir took up pastoral life, herding cattle, sheep, or goats.
   • They migrated with their herds seasonally to new pastures as needed.
2. Transition to Settled Cultivation:
   • Some tribal groups began settling and cultivating land in fixed locations, using ploughs and establishing land rights.
   • Clans, such as the Mundas of Chota Nagpur, collectively owned land with rights distributed among clan members, traced back to the original settlers.
   • Over time, social hierarchies developed within the tribes, with some becoming chiefs and others followers.
3. British Perspectives:
   • British officials considered settled tribes like the Gonds and Santhals more civilised compared to hunter-gatherers or shifting cultivators.
   • They viewed those living in forests as wild and believed they needed to be settled and civilised.

Tribal Work and Time Division

1. Concept of Time and Work:
   • People in different societies have unique perceptions of work and time, especially evident among shifting cultivators and hunters.
   • Their lives are structured around a seasonal calendar, with specific tasks designated for men and women.
2. Verrier Elwin’s Observations:
   • British anthropologist Verrier Elwin spent the 1930s and 1940s among the Baigas and Khonds in central India, documenting their lifestyle.
   • Elwin described how tribal activities were deeply tied to the lunar phases and seasonal cycles.

Seasonal Activities Among the Baigas and Khonds

• Chait (Spring):
  • Women cleared harvested stalks.
  • Men engaged in large tree cutting and participated in ritual hunts starting at the full moon.
• Baisakh (Late Spring):
  • The community conducted controlled burns of the forest.
  • Women collected any unburnt wood, while men continued hunting close to their villages.
• Jeth (Early Summer):
  • Sowing of seeds occurred.
  • Hunting activities continued alongside agricultural work.
• Asadh to Bhadon (Monsoon to Late Monsoon):
  • Men predominantly worked in the fields during these months.
• Kuar (Autumn):
  • Harvesting of early beans took place.
• Kartik (Late Autumn):
  • Harvesting of kutki (a local crop) was done.
• Aghan (Early Winter):
  • All crops were ready for harvest.
  • This time also involved winnowing the harvested crops.
• Pus (Mid-Winter):
  • Celebrations such as dances and marriages occurred during this period.
  • Tribes moved to new fields, known as ‘bewars.’
• Magh (Late Winter):
  • The main activities were hunting and gathering as the tribes settled into new bewars.

Cycle of Activities

• First Year:
  • The described cycle of activities pertains to the first year in a new field.
• Second Year:
  • Less emphasis on agriculture with more time allocated for hunting.
  • Tribals had enough food stock to stay in the bewars.
• Third Year:
  • Diet needed supplementation from forest products due to reduced agricultural yield.

Cultural Aspects

• Tribal children often accompanied their mothers to the forest to help gather forest produce.
• The calendar not only dictated their economic activities but also integrated their cultural practices, such as marriages and communal gatherings.

Changes to Tribal Chiefs and Authorities

Diminished Powers of Tribal Chiefs:

• Before the British, tribal chiefs held significant economic and administrative powers, managing local land and forest rules, sometimes with their own police.
• Under British rule, chiefs retained land titles but lost most administrative powers, forced to implement British laws and collect tributes for the British.
• They could no longer fulfil their traditional roles, weakening their authority among their people.

Impact on Shifting Cultivators

British Discomfort with Nomadic Tribes:

• The British preferred settled populations for easier control and administration, and for stable revenue through fixed land settlements.
• Shifting cultivators, or jhum cultivators, were encouraged to adopt plough cultivation, which often failed due to unsuitable soil and water conditions, leading to poor crop yields.
• Despite initial resistance and protests, the British allowed some tribal groups to continue jhum cultivation in designated forest areas.

Forest Laws and Restrictions

New Forest Laws:

• British governance extended control over all forests, designating them as state property with some classified as Reserved Forests for timber production.
• In these Reserved Forests, traditional practices like jhum cultivation, hunting, and fruit gathering were restricted, forcing many tribals to relocate in search of livelihoods.
• To manage forest resources and ensure labour, the Forest Department established forest villages, allowing limited cultivation in exchange for labour in logging and forest management.

Exploitation and Resistance

Economic Exploitation and Resistance:

• The imposition of various taxes and the exploitation by traders and moneylenders increased hardships, leading to economic dependency and poverty among tribals.
• Colonial forest laws and economic policies prompted widespread disobedience, illegal practices, and revolts, such as the revolt of Songram Sangma in 1906 in Assam and the forest satyagraha in the 1930s in the Central Provinces.

The Silk Trade Exploitation

The Problem with Trade:

• The demand for Indian silk in European markets led to exploitation of tribal silk growers in Hazaribagh, where middlemen and traders paid low prices for cocoons but sold them at much higher rates elsewhere.
• Tribals increasingly viewed traders as adversaries, contributing to their economic exploitation and marginalisation.

Migration for Work

Forced Migration for Employment:

• Industrial developments like tea plantations and mining attracted tribal labourers to far-off places like Assam and Jharkhand.
• Tribals were often recruited through contractors, who paid them low wages and restricted their movement, preventing them from returning home.

Changes in Tribal Leadership

Impact on Tribal Chiefs:

• Before British rule, tribal chiefs had significant economic and administrative powers, including the ability to enforce local land and forest laws.
• Under British rule, chiefs retained titles over lands but lost most of their administrative powers. They were required to enforce British laws, pay tributes, and maintain order among tribal people on behalf of the British.
• This resulted in a loss of respect and authority among their people, as chiefs could no longer fulfil traditional roles effectively.

Changes in Traditional Practices

Shifting Cultivators and British Policies:

• The British preferred settled communities for easier administration and consistent revenue, thus were uncomfortable with nomadic tribes like shifting cultivators.
• They introduced land settlements, defining land rights and fixing revenue demands. This system designated some tribals as landowners and others as tenants.
• Attempts to settle shifting cultivators (jhum cultivators) often failed due to unsuitable environmental conditions for plough cultivation. Many cultivators continued their traditional practices amidst resistance, eventually forcing the British to allow shifting cultivation in specific forest areas.

Forest Laws and Livelihood

Restrictive Forest Laws:

• British control extended to all forests, declaring them state property and restricting traditional practices like jhum cultivation, hunting, and fruit gathering.
• Some forests were designated as Reserved Forests, prioritised for timber production for the British, further restricting tribal access and activities.
• Tribals were forced to relocate, seeking work elsewhere due to these restrictions. To solve labour shortages in forestry work, the British established forest villages where tribals could live and work under controlled conditions.

Resistance and Rebellion

Tribal Resistance to Colonial Laws:

• New forest laws and economic pressures led to significant tribal resistance. Tribals continued illegal practices, defied restrictions, and in some instances, engaged in open rebellions such as the revolt of Songram Sangma in 1906 in Assam and the forest satyagraha in the 1930s in the Central Provinces.

Exploitation in Trade

Exploitation by Traders and Economic Impact:

• Nineteenth-century tribal groups faced increasing intrusion by traders and moneylenders who exploited them through unfair trade practices.
• In the silk trade, for example, tribal cocoon growers in Hazaribagh were paid minimally by traders who made substantial profits by selling the cocoons at much higher prices in markets like Burdwan or Gaya.
• Such exploitation led many tribals to view traders and the market system as adversaries.

Migration for Work

Economic Migration and Hardships:

• Industrial developments like tea plantations and mining operations recruited tribal labour on a large scale. Contractors often exploited these workers, offering low wages and restricting their ability to return home.

This forced migration for work exacerbated the hardships faced by tribals, separating them from their traditional lands and lifestyles.